Unlike the Rigid Western Classification of Minor and Major Art

Greek Sculpture Made Simple
History, Timeline, Characteristics of Statues, Reliefs From Ancient Hellenic republic.
Main A-Z Alphabetize

The Farnese Heracles (fifth Century)
Museo Archeologico Nazionale,
Naples. A Roman copy of the
sculpture by Lysippos.
Notice the musculus-particular and
natural-looking stance.

Note Most Fine art Evaluation
In order to appreciate 3-D art
from ancient Greece, run into:
How to Appreciate Sculpture.
For afterwards works, see:
How to Appreciate Modern Sculpture.

Where Did Greek Sculpture Come up From?

Greek art of classical antiquity is believed to exist a mixture of Egyptian, Syrian, Minoan (Crete), Mycenean and Persian cultures - which (judging by language) are themselves derived from Indo-European tribes migrating from the open steppes northward of the Black Sea. Greek sculptors learned both stone carving and bronze-casting from the Egyptians and Syrians, while the traditions of sculpture within Hellenic republic were developed by the two main groups of settlers from Thessaly - the Ionians and Dorians. (For more than well-nigh stone masonry in Ancient Egypt, see: Egyptian Compages.)

What is the Timeline of Greek Sculpture?

The chronology of sculpture in Ancient Greece is traditionally divided into iii main periods:

• The Archaic Menstruation (c.650-500 BCE)
Greek sculptors commencement to develop monumental marble sculpture.
• The Classical Period (c.500-323 BCE)
The creative highpoint of Greek sculpture
• The Hellenistic Menses (c.323-27 BCE)
The "Greek" style of three-D art is adept across the Eastern Mediterranean.

[Note: For information most ceramic fine art, including the Geometric, Black-figure, Ruby-red-figure and White-footing technique, please run across: Greek Pottery: History & Styles.]

Apollo Belvedere (330) by Leochares
Museo Pio Clementino, Rome.
Suddenly Greek sculpture is
utterly life-like.

Doryphorus (440) by Polykleitos.
Museo Archeologico Nazionale,
Naples. One of the nifty
works of Greek culture - note
the contrapposto stance, creating
tense and relaxed parts of the
body on opposite sides.

What is the History of Early Greek Sculpture?

Os and ivory carving had been produced in Egypt since well-nigh v,000 BCE, as role of cultural traditions established during the late Stone Historic period (ten,000-5,000 BCE). So, from 2,600 BCE onwards, came various strands of Aegean art, notably Minoan culture on Crete, with its rock sculpture (notably seal stones), fresco painting, ceramics and metalwork. Following a series of earthquakes, Minoan culture collapsed around 1425 BCE, and the mainland-based Mycenean art became the dominant blazon of Greek culture - known for its ceramic pottery, carved gemstones and glass ornaments - until nearly 1150 BCE, when they too were taken over - this time by invading Dorians. Afterwards this came the Greek "Dark Ages" - a 400-year period of chaos and fighting, when little if whatsoever art was produced. During the calmer 8th century BCE, however, a new civilisation of visual art began to emerge, involving pottery and some painting and sculpture, while Homer's Iliad and The Odyssey were also written around this time. However, sculptural development remained extremely slow until the Archaic Menses (c.600-500 BCE). For more about the earliest Primitive styles, see: Daedalic Greek Sculpture (650-600). For a wider ambit, see: Etruscan Art (c.700-ninety BCE).

Was Greek Sculpture Primarily Religious?

Yes. During the Primitive and Classical periods, almost important Greek sculpture was of a religious character, made for temples which were usually dedicated to a unmarried divinity. Divine statues were sculpted in the likeness of man, and were made in various materials and sizes. Other votive statues stood inside and outside the temple as well every bit urns, images of sacred animals, and other objects of a sculptural nature.

Why did Greek Sculpture develop more rapidly in the Primitive Period?

A key feature of the Archaic menstruum was the renewal of commercial contacts and maritime merchandise links between Greece and the Eye East (specially Egypt, also as the city-states of Asia Small-scale), which inspired Greek artists to begin establishing a tradition of monumental marble sculpture. In addition, it was during the Archaic era that the Greeks began using stone for their public buildings, and started to develop their three Orders of Architecture (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian), each comprising a column, with a base, shaft, capital, and entablature with Architrave frieze, and cornice. Most importantly, it was during this period that the Greek rock temple attained its essential form, allowing for plenty of architectural sculpture, including: reliefs and friezes on the temple's pediments (the triangular gable under the roof of a edifice) and metopes (the rectangular panels above the colums), as well equally statues of all kinds. Information technology's worth bearing in mind that the history of sculpture shows a clear correlation between architecture and plastic art: the more buildings that are constructed, the more sculptures are needed. This occurred in Classical Antiquity, and also in Medieval sculpture (Romanesque/Gothic), Renaissance sculpture (Early and Loftier), Baroque Sculpture (17th century) and Neoclassical sculpture (18th century).

What are the Characteristics of Archaic Greek Sculpture?

In general, during this menstruation, Greek sculptors made friezes and reliefs of varying sizes (in stone, terracotta and wood), as well as many different types of statue (in rock, terracotta and bronze), and miniature sculptures (in ivory, os and metal). Archaic free-standing figures accept the solid mass and frontal stance of Egyptian models, merely their forms are more dynamic: see, for instance, the Torso of Hera (660–580, Louvre).

From near 620, the 3 nearly common statues were the standing nude youth ( kouros , plural kouroi ), the standing draped girl ( kore , plural korai ), and the seated woman. (The kouros remained popular until most 460.) To begin with, these figurative works - similar nigh other free-standing Greek sculptures from the Archaic era - resembled Egyptian statues in both shape and posture (frontal, wide-shouldered, narrow-waisted, arms hanging shut to trunk, fists clenched and both feet on the ground, left-foot slightly avant-garde, facial expression limited to a fixed "archaic smile"). However, equally Greek appreciation of man anatomy improved, these kouroi and korai became less rigid and artificial-looking, and more than true-to-life, whereas Egyptian sculptors adhered strictly to the rigid hieratic designs laid down past their cultural authorities.

Another distinctly Greek feature was that, dissimilar Egyptian figures, the kouroi had no explicit religious purpose: they might be used as commemorative markers or tombstones, or votive statues, or to portray local heroes like athletes, or to correspond the God Apollo or Heracles. The Greeks had long decided that the human torso was the about of import discipline for whatever creative person, and since they gave their Gods human being course, they made no distinction between the sacred and the secular. Also, kouroi were nude, while Egyptian male figures were shown clothed.

The female statue, the kore, was seen as less of import. In its creation, Archaic sculptors focused mainly on proportion and the pattern of drapery, rather than concrete anatomy. Ionian artists were the best at depicting the folds of the loosely draped dress (chiton) and overmantle (himation). Most korai were votive sculptures, continuing as dedications in sanctuaries, such as the Acropolis in Athens.

What are the Most Famous Greek Statues from the Archaic Period?

Famous examples of Archaic Greek Sculpture include:

- Kleobis and Biton (610-580 BCE) Archeological Museum of Delphi
- Kouros (c.600) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
- The Strangford Apollo of Anafi (c.600-580) British Museum, London
- The Dipylon Kouros (c.600) Athens, Kerameikos Museum
- The Moschophoros or Calf-bearer (c.570) Acropolis Museum, Athens
- The Anavysos Kouros (c.525) National Archeological Museum of Athens
- Frieze of the Siphnian Treasury, Delphi (c.525) Archeological Museum, Delphi

To see how Greek designs advanced, compare, for instance, the limestone statue Lady of Auxerre (c.630 BCE, Louvre, Paris), with the "Peplos Kore" (c.530, Acropolis Museum, Athens); compare also, the Sounion Kouros (c.600, National Archeological Museum of Athens), with the "Kritios Boy" (490-480, Acropolis Museum, Athens).

What Materials did Greek Sculptors Utilize?

The about pop sculptural materials used in Ancient Hellenic republic included: marble and other calcareous stone, bronze, terra cotta and wood. It is worth noting that about one-half of all statues created during antiquity were made of bronze, despite the fact that the metal was only used widely in sculpture from almost 550-500 onwards. Whatever material was used, the final surface of the statue was made to look more life-like past being coated with oil and hot wax, earlier beingness coloured and gilded. Even relief sculpture was not considered finished until polished and coloured.

Were Greek Sculptures Painted?

Generally, Yes. Whether made from marble, statuary, wood, terracotta or metallic, most Greek sculptures (statues and reliefs) were painted in polychrome. Amazingly, this fundamental feature was largely dismissed for several centuries due to the prejudices of influential art historians like the Neoclassical expert Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-68), who remained resolutely opposed to the very idea of "painted" Greek sculpture. Information technology wasn't until the High german archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann recently proved that the entire Parthenon was in fact painted, that the colouring of ancient Greek sculptures was accepted as fact. Run across also: Archaic Greek Painting (c.625-500).

What Happened to Greek Sculpture During the Classical Menstruum?

The Classical period witnessed a rapid improvement in Greek bronze. There was a dramatic rise in the technical skills of Greek sculptors in their power to depict the human trunk in a relaxed rather than rigid posture. Classicism improved on the rigidity of the Archaic idiom and brought a more natural sense of movement and amount to the man figure, equally exemplified, for instance, in the metopes and pediments of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Also, bronze became the predominant medium for awe-inspiring free-standing statues, non least because of the metal's ability to hold its shape - no matter how complex - which enabled the creation of less rigid poses. Likewise as being stronger and lighter, a bronze figure could be stabilized by placing lead weights inside its hollow feet. This permitted the creation of new poses, which, if sculpted in marble, would have caused the statue to fall over. Unfortunately, bronze was then of import for the cosmos of weapons, and so easy to melt downwards, that most Greek bronze statues take vanished, making it hard to properly appreciate the Greek artistic achievement, and leaving us dependent on Roman copies of Greek originals.

What are the Main Types of Classical Greek Sculpture?

Classicist sculpture connected to be primarily continued with religion, and included the full panoply of Greek divinities and mythological figures. Thus, in improver to the twelve Olympian Gods and Goddesses - Zeus, Apollo, Poseidon, Demeter, Hera, Artemis, Hephaistos, Athene, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Hestia - sculptors carved modest divinities such every bit, Dionysos, and his cycle of satyrs, nymphs and centaurs; Pluto and Persephone; Eros, Psyche and Ariadne; the Muses, Graces, Seasons, and Fates; as well equally heroes, including Achilles, Herakles, Theseus, Perseus, and others.

In addition to religious works, Classical artists besides produced a range of three-dimensional sporting figures, depicting athletes of various kinds, including discus-throwers, runners, wrestlers and chariot-racers. Curiously, however, historical sculpture every bit skilful in Egypt and Assyria was most unheard of in Ancient Hellenic republic. Important events were depicted in mythological terms, rather than through factual narrative.

What are the Characteristics of Classical Greek Sculpture?

The master characteristics of Classical statuary concerned the accuracy of its anatomy and the realism of its stance. However such improvements did non happen overnight. Thus, in Early Classical Greek Sculpture (c.500-450), sculptors full-bodied on making figures that were seen as moving through space, rather than merely standing in information technology. (A masterpiece of early Classicism is Discobolus (c.450) by Myron.) Adjacent, during the phase of High Classical Greek Sculpture (c.450-400), they applied a Platonic catechism of proportions to their figures. The human body was portrayed in an "ideal" form - an idea that was rekindled past Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael during the Loftier Renaissance. In addition, Loftier Classical sculptors developed the contrapposto opinion, in which the subject's body weight is shifted onto a single foot, leaving the other slightly aptitude. An case is Doryphorus (c.440, marble re-create in Museo Nazionale, Naples). More natural than previous poses, contrapposto for the starting time time allowed the influence of gravity to impact the relationship between the discipline'southward muscles and limbs. Invented by the Greeks, this blazon of posture was the foundation for European sculpture up until the 20th century. Finally, during the menstruation of Late Classical Greek Sculpture, figures came to be seen as three-dimensional forms, which occupied and enclosed space. They could be viewed from any angle. This late stage of classicism (4th century) too produced the outset free-standing female nudes. (Late Classical statuary is exemplified past Aphrodite of Knidos (350-forty) by Praxiteles.)

Who are the Virtually Famous Classical Sculptors?

Another characteristic of Greek Classical sculpture is the emergence of named sculptors, although their works are known near entirely through subsequently Roman copies. The greatest sculptors included: Kalamis (active 470-440), Pythagoras (active c.440-420), Phidias (488-431 BCE), Kresilas (c.480-410), Myron (active 480-444), Polykleitos (agile c.450-430), Callimachus (active 432-408), Skopas (active 395-350), Lysippos (c.395-305), Praxiteles (active 375-335), and Leochares (active 340-320).

What is the Most Famous Greek Architectural Sculpture from the Classical Period?

It was during the 5th century (c.480-400) that Greek art (notably that of Athens) reached its highpoint. It witnessed the creation of the Athens Parthenon (447-422) - universally acknowledged as i of the bully masterpieces of Classical Greek sculpture, with its 500-human foot frieze, hundreds of reliefs, and the colossal chryselephantine sculpture of Athene, by Phidias - equally well equally many other celebrated examples of Greek architecture, including: the Acropolis complex (550-404), the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (468-456), the Temple of Hephaistos (c.449), the Temple of Athena Nike (c.427), and the Theatre at Delphi (c.400). All these important buildings needed decorating with fresco painting and a broad range of sculpture, in marble, bronze and sometimes fifty-fifty chryselephantine goldsmithery. Where reliefs were needed to decorate specific architectural elements, sculptors created narratives incorporating stories from Greek mythology, like the Labours of Hercules, The Battle of the Lapiths and the Centaurs, and many others: see, for example, the famous Parthenon Frieze, too as the later Bassae Frieze (420-400).

What are the Most Famous Greek Statues from the Classical Period?

Hither is a brusque list of the greatest sculptures from the Classical era:

- Leda and the Swan (500-450) past Timotheus.
- The Tyrannicides Hamodius Aristogeiton (c.477) by Critios.
- The Charioteer of Delphi (c.475) by unknown artist.
- Discobolus (c.450) by Myron.
- The Farnese Heracles (5th Century) by unknown artist.
- Zeus or Poseidon (c.460) past Phidias.
- Riace Bronze A (c.450) by Phidias.
- "The Apollo Parnopius" (c.450) by Phidias.
- Athena Parthenos (c.447-5) past Phidias.
- Statue of Zeus (c.432) by Phidias.
- Wounded Amazon (440-430) past Polykleitos.
- Doryphorus (440) past Polykleitos.
- Statue of Zeus in the Temple of Zeus, at Olympia (c.432) by Phidias.
- Aphrodite (Venus Genetrix) (5th Century) by Callimachus.
- Youth of Antikythera (4th Century) by unknown artist.
- Apollo Sauroktonos (4th Century) by Praxiteles.
- Hermes and the Infant Dionysos (4th Century) by Praxiteles.
- Aphrodite of Knidos (350-twoscore) by Praxiteles.
- Apollo Belvedere (c.330) past Leochares.
- Artemis with a Hind (c.330) by Leochares.
- The Farnese Hercules (350-300) past Lysippos.
- The Victorious Youth (350-300) attributed to Lysippos.
- Apoxyomenos (Youth scraping downward) (c.330) by Lysippos.

What Happened in the Greek World during the Hellenistic Period?

Hellenism, the outward spread of Greek culture to neighbouring areas of the eastern Mediterranean and beyond, traditionally begins with the death of Alexander the Great (323 BCE), when his huge empire was divided into three: Antigonus I (Monophthalmus) and the Antigonid dynasty took over Greece and Republic of macedonia; Seleucus I (Nicator) and the Seleucid dynasty controlled Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Persia; and Ptolemy I (Soter) and the Ptolemaic dynasty ruled Egypt. As well as Athens, cities like Alexandria in Egypt, and Antioch, Pergamon and Miletus in Asia Pocket-size (Turkey), became wonders of the ancient world. Somewhen, however, all these regions came under the control of the Romans - the final to autumn was Egypt in 31 BCE, and it is this result which marks the end of Hellenism and the outset of Roman sculpture. For a wait across the borders of Greece, encounter: Mesopotamian art (4500-539 BCE) and the Art of Ancient Persia (3500-330 BCE).

What Changes did Hellenistic Greek Sculpture Introduce?

Hellenistic Greek Sculpture introduced a number of changes to the type of art produced during the Classical era. To brainstorm with, monumental sculpture was no longer created primarily to serve an austere religion, simply became an important promotional tool to reinforce autocratic regimes gear up throughout the region (in Pergamon, in Alexandria, and so on). In addition, equally new centres of Greek culture sprang up in Egypt, Syrian arab republic, Anatolia and further afield, there was a huge increase in demand for both architectural and monumental sculpture to decorate local temples and public places. This combination of increased demand and expansion of function led to sculpture condign (like Greek Pottery) less of an art and more of an industry. As a result, designs became standardized, and quality declined.

Still, plastic art became more than interesting. This was considering the general ascent in need led to a call for more variety. Thus sculptors broadened their subject field-thing, and no longer restricted themselves to the idealized heroics of Classical sculpture, just depicted a wider range of personalities, moods and scenes. Acceptable subjects now included: a wounded barbarian, a child removing a thorn, a huntress, an old woman, children, animals, and domestic scenes. Even caricatures appeared. For more than details of this new mode, run into: Pergamene School of Hellenistic Sculpture (241-133 BCE).

Note: During the era of Hellenism, post-obit the decease of Alexander the Great, the influence of Greek sculpture spread as far east equally India, where information technology had a major touch on on Indian sculpture - notably the Greco-Buddhist statues of the Gandhara schoolhouse.

What are the Chief Characteristics of Hellenistic Greek Sculpture?

Almost chiefly, in that location was a major change in aesthetics: in particular, Hellenism replaced the serene dazzler of classicism with a more emotional type of sculpture, which also included an intense realism. In this new era of expressionism, statues exuded energy and power - run into, for instance, The Farnese Balderdash, or The Winged Victory of Samothrace (220-190); human being figures began to radiate suffering and emotion - see, for case, The Dying Gaul (c.240 BCE) or Laocoon and His Sons (c.42-20). 18-carat sensuality also appears, in works like Aphrodite, Pan and Eros (c.100), excavated at Delos, while for a more subtle version, run across the exquisite "Aphrodite of Cyrene" (c.100). In portraiture, Hellenism witnessed an increasing fascination with individual psychology: run across, for instance, the melancholic, introspective sculpture of Demosthenes (c.280) by Polyeuktos.

Some placidity endured, however, in sculptures like The Iii Graces (2nd Century) and Venus de Milo (c.100).

If the High Classical menstruum prepare the standard for the High Renaissance, the era of Hellenistic art was the prototype for sculptors of the Mannerist and Baroque movements. Not surprisingly, therefore, size became an important cistron, with sculptors vying to create bigger and more than awesome sculptures: a process which culminated in the Colossus of Rhodes, by Chares of Lindos - a construction roughly the same size every bit the Statue of Liberty. It was later on listed every bit one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, by the Greek poet Antipater of Sidon.

Perhaps the nigh boggling monument to the "Baroque expressionism" of Greek Hellenistic sculpture was the huge Pergamon Altar of Zeus, congenital over xxx years (c.180-150). (See also: Hellenistic Statues and Reliefs.) The monument celebrated the crucial role of the Kings of Pergamon, as frontier guards of Greek civilization in Asia Pocket-sized, and illustrates their numerous triumphs over barbarian forces encroaching from the east. Second but to the Parthenon frieze, the Pergamon Altar is the nigh extensive example of Greek monumental sculpture known to art. The outer frieze depicts The battle of the Gods and the Giants in all its unrestrained violence, while the internal reliefs exhibit a more controlled style of narrative, pointing to later on developments in relief sculpture, such as Trajan'south Column in Rome, 250 years later: for more details, see: Relief Sculpture of Ancient Rome. For more about early phases of Italian sculpture, painting and compages, run across: Hellenistic Roman Art.

What are the Most Famous Greek Statues from the Hellenistic Catamenia?

Here is a short choice of the greatest sculptures of the period:

- Colossus of Rhodes (292-280 BCE) Past Chares of Lindos.
- Crouching Hermaphrodite (3rd Century) Louvre. By unknown artist.
- Menelaos with the Trunk of Patroklos (3rd Century) By unknown artist.
- Dying Gaul (c.240 BCE) Musei Capitolini, Rome. Past Epigonus.
- Ludovisi Gauls (c.240) National Museum of Rome. By unknown artist.
- Winged Victory of Samothrace (Nike) (220-190) Louvre. By unknown artist.
- The Barberini Faun (c.220) Glyptothek, Munich. By unknown artist.
- The Pergamon Chantry (c.180-150) Pergamon, Asia Pocket-size. Past unknown artist.
- Jockey of Artemision (c.140) Archeological Museum, Athens. Unknown artist.
- "The Farnese Bull" (2nd Century) Past Apollonius of Tralles.
- Sleeping Hermaphrodite (2nd Century BCE) Louvre. By unknown artist.
- The Iii Graces (2d Century) Louvre. By unknown artist.
- "The Medici Venus" (150-100) Uffizi, Florence. Past unknown artist.
- "Aphrodite of Cyrene" (c.100) Museo delle Terme, Rome. By unknown creative person.
- Borghese Gladiator (c.100) Louvre. By Agasias of Ephesus.
- Aphrodite, Pan and Eros (c.100) National Archeological Museum, Athens.
- "The Venus of Arles" (c.100) Louvre. By unknown artist.
- Venus de Milo (Aphrodite of Melos) (c.100) Louvre. By Andros of Antioch.
- Spinario (Boy removing thorn from foot) (c.80) Palazzo dei Conservatori.
- Laocoon and His Sons (42-20 BCE) By Hagesander, Athenodoros, Polydorus.

Where are the Best Collections of Original Greek Sculpture?

Most surviving statues and reliefs from Classical Antiquity are Roman copies of Greek originals. These can be seen in many of the all-time art museums in Hellenic republic and Italian republic, as well equally farther afield. Here is a brusk list of the best collections.

GREECE
National Archeological Museum, Athens
Acropolis Museum, Athens
Archeological Museum, Olympia

ITALY
Vatican Museums
Musei Capitolini, Rome
Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome
Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples
Museo Nazionale, Calabria

EUROPE
Pergamon Museum, Berlin
Staatliche Museen, Berlin
Glyptothek, Munich
Louvre, Paris
Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen
Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg
British Museum, London

Usa
Art Institute of Chicago
Carnegie Museum of Art (Pittsburgh)
J Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
Los Angeles Canton Museum of Fine art
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Our Noesis of Ancient Greek Sculpture

Monumental sculpture in Ancient Greece started about 650 BCE, and by well-nigh 600 BCE was a major element in Greek art with an established and growing market place. It supplied cult figures of gods, dedications in sanctuaries, monuments to stand up above graves, architectural decorations, and eventually statues and reliefs for wealthy individual houses. Of all this relatively little remains: much has perished from natural causes, but still more was destroyed deliberately during medieval times. The reason was not usually religious zeal, but the value of marble as raw material for lime and of bronze for scrap, so that in order to survive, sculpture had to be out of sight and accomplish.

Thus, what we now take is a sample unevenly distributed in fourth dimension, type and quality. Architectural sculpture, while still in place, was not likely to be removed and, when the building collapsed, might be buried under a mass of masonry. Independent reliefs, peculiarly gravestones, were liable to fall downwardly and, if covered over, exist forgotten; and any slab carved in low relief could be reused as a structural block. Gratuitous-standing statues had poorer chances, since they were less likely to be subconscious sufficiently past debris, especially in populous places. Metal, of course, was worth digging for and so less than a score of Greek bronzes take turned up that are reasonably complete, several of them dredged upwards from the ocean. As for marble, works from the Archaic period survived all-time; being less admired it was less advisedly conserved by afterward Greeks and Romans and so could be lost before the flow of destruction set in, and there is also the big cache from the Acropolis of Athens where much of the bronze which the Persians broke in 480-79 was used as in-fill during the restoration that followed.

At the other end, Roman art provides us with a surfeit of copies of pop Greek sculptures from both the Classical and Hellenistic eras. These copies, some Late Hellenistic just more than of them Roman, hinder too as help the enjoyment and study of Greek sculpture. Though the copyists fixed points past measurement, the points were much sparser than those used in modernistic exercise and the intervening spaces and the details were carved freehand and usually without much care, as can be seen when comparing different reproductions of the same original.

In general copies are fairly reliable for pose, but more often than not so harsh and insensitive in their treatment of surface that they more oft repel than involvement the unprejudiced viewer; and with the finer examples there is the trouble whether the copyists may not also have been creative. Unfortunately very few first-rate Classical stautues or ones from the Hellenistic period of Greek sculpture take survived in the original and those that are known through copies are far more numerous, so that copies are an essential reference in any stylistic survey of Greek sculpture.

Besides the surviving originals and copies there is another source of information in the remains of Greek and Latin literature. Pliny the Elder (the Roman author, 23-79 CE) includes a continuous account of Greek sculpture in the Naturalis Historia he compiled effectually the eye of the kickoff century CE, while Pausanias a century later mentions many of the works he saw when travelling round for his Description of Greece. In addition, there are coincidental references to sculptors and sculptures by other authors. Pausanias was quite uncritical, reporting faithfully what was told him just he was more interested in mythology than in art. Pliny'south business relationship, mainly second-hand, is compounded of colourful but untrustworthy anecdotes, lists of sculptors and their most famous works, and a series of stylistic judgments that were probably taken from a Greek critic of the third century with a skilful and sensitive knowledge of Classical sculpture (c.500-323 BCE) just not Archaic sculpture (650-500 BCE).

In exercise our understanding of the development of Greek sculpture depends on the stylistic analysis of surviving works, supported past a miscellany of dates from historical records and inscriptions. The most important of these dates are the Western farsi capture of the Acropolis of Athens in 480, which gives a lower limit for the works they damaged; the completion of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia non later on than 456; the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon, carried out in sequence from 447 to 432; the Nike of Paionios, deputed virtually 420; the gravestone of Dexileos, killed at Corinth in 394; the building of the Mausoleum, which was going on in the 350s; the embellishment of the Great Altar at Pergamum, which is very probably of the early 2d century; the destruction of Delos in 69; and the dedication of the Ara Pacis Augustae at Rome in ix BCE.

The present land of knowledge of ancient fine art in Hellenic republic is very uneven. For the Archaic menstruation, where there are no lists in Pliny to distract students, the examination of style has produced a reasonably credible evolution, every bit it has too - in spite of Pliny - for the Classical period till near the end of the fifth century; simply even hither, experts are liable to disagree past as much as twenty years over the dating of detail works. The quaternary century is obscure, whatever the text-books say, and the Hellenistic period still more than so, except perhaps towards its end. Though in time there should be more precision nigh trends, it does not seem that we shall ever accept enough material to empathise the personalities of Greek sculpture, not that that volition deter the many students who remain devoted to their Natural History.

For more than virtually the influence of Greek sculpture on 20th century artists, encounter: Classical Revival in modern art (1900-30).

Sculptural Materials in Aboriginal Hellenic republic

The main materials for Greek sculpture were stone (peculiarly marble) and bronze - limestone, terracotta and wood being much inferior - and there were several famous examples of ivory carving, notably the chryselephantine statues made past Phidias from golden sheeting and ivory mounted on a wooden core.

Marble, which was used from the beginning, occurs in several places in and around the Aegean, though not in South Italy and Sicily. The Greeks liked white, medium to fine-grained varieties, with much more sparkle than the Carrara (or Luna) later exploited by the Romans and still familiar in the cemeteries of Western Europe. Limestone, which Classical archaeologists ofttimes telephone call 'poras', is plentiful in nearly Greek lands and some of it is of very fine quality; it was the commonest stone for statues in the seventh century, simply afterwards passed as reputable only for architectural sculpture in places similar Sicily, where marble was too expensive. Terra cotta besides was an economical material for architectural work, particularly antefixes and acroteria. Forest, of course, had little chance of surviving, and to judge past ancient records was never in regular use for finished sculpture, though perhaps the molds for statuary statues were formed on wooden figures. Statuary was not of import till the second half of the 6th century, when the hammering of canvass metal was replaced by hollow casting, but past the early fifth century it was the preferred medium for most types of free-standing statue (though not for reliefs and architectural sculpture). Chryselephantine statues, which were too expensive and perhaps too too easily damaged to be common, become dorsum at least to the center years of the 6th century: they were appreciated particularly as cult images in temples. There are other instances, also exceptional, of combinations of materials: some big statues were 'acrolithie', that is of stone for the flesh and forest for the other parts, and occasionally the hair of marble statues was completed in stucco.

Greek sculpture was coloured, as was most sculpture till the Renaissance, and indeed if the aboriginal marble statues which were found and admired at that fourth dimension had kept their paint, the more than conservative of us would probably still expect colouring on sculpture. Of the details of the Greek painting of marble, every bit well equally limestone and wood, our data is patchy. For the 6th century, the finds on the Acropolis of Athens requite good samples and in that location are later sarcophagi from Sidon and Etruria where the colours are well preserved, but ordinarily we are lucky if we have traces even of the boundaries of painted areas. On terracotta the paint has survived much better, since it was fired on, but unfortunately because of the firing the range of colours was limited and rather crude. There is the difficulty also that through chemical action some colours may have changed - in item blues have sometimes turned into greens - and reddish, which is the most persistent paint, may sometimes have served as an undercoat. Nonetheless one may assert that eyes, hair, lips and nipples were regularly (and cheeks sometimes) painted, that female flesh was left in the natural white of the marble or only tinted lightly, that male flesh was often coloured a warm brown, and that drapery was normally painted over completely unless for a garment was left white for contrast. More often than not, until the fourth century, there was a continuous progress towards subtler and more natural colouring, though later on information technology became commoner for hair to be gilded.

For more than most painting techniques in Ancient Greece, please see: Classical Greek Painting (c.500-323) and Hellenistic Greek Painting (323-31 BCE).

With this sense of taste for polychromy it is not surprising that the Greeks were set to add such accessories as earrings and weapons in metallic - how extensively may be judged past the holes drilled for their attachment. The result of all this was to brand ancient sculpture much more vivacious, nigh obviously in giving sight to the optics. It is harder to summate the effects in drapery, merely sometimes the composition must have been clarified or strengthened by contrasting color, as on the Nike of Paionios (c.420 BCE), where one thigh was naked and the other covered. On reliefs, the groundwork was painted red or bluish, and on pediments, blue. As for bronze, Greek taste preferred to go on it shiny, and patination (light-green or brownish sheen) was a sign of neglect, although in the Roman period some collectors considered patina a certificate of antiquity. Eyes were regularly filled with paste or some other substance, and lips and nipples were often inlaid with copper or silver, but experts all the same dispute whether hair and other areas were darkened artificially or even painted. So when 1 looks at Greek sculpture it is worth making the endeavour to remember that there was more to it than form.

Greek Sculptural Methods

For reliefs it is natural to sketch the subject on the prepared surface and to work from that sketch, but until well into the Hellenistic period Greek marble sculptors did non use detailed models when carving statues, or so it tin reasonably be inferred from finished and unfinished works. Commencement, it is not till the last century BCE that there are traces of whatever system of pointing - the method past which positions determined on a model are transferred precisely to the cake from which the concluding statue is to exist carved - and even then the points were far enough apart for large areas to be left to freehand carving. Secondly, in pedimental sculpture, where at least the relationship of the figures had to be planned accurately before-hand, the diverse sculptors of the squad could develop the drapery of their figures as they chose; this is very clear in the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, where on some figures the treatment of folds is quondam-fashioned and on others discordantly progressive.

From the identity of fashion with that of marble statues, bronze statues likewise must usually have depended on carving, presumably here of the preliminary figure, and it is hardly before the second century that there is any suggestion in finished work of that fluid kind of modelling which is encouraged past soft clay or wax. More than surprisingly there is no such plastic modelling in terracottas either. Patently the Greek sculptural tradition was founded on and stock-still by carving.

Surviving originals which were abandoned at various stages of progress show that the normal procedure of carving a marble statue was not to cease i part at a time (every bit ordinarily happens with pointing from a scale model), just to work round the figure stage by stage. This meant that at that place was non much that the sculptor-could consul safely to an assistant and that he was continually reminded of the outcome of the whole as he dealt with the item. Presumably he began by cartoon the outlines of his effigy on all four sides of the block. This would take been practicable enough with the elementary, 4-square poses that were regular for statuary till the 4th century.

Adjacent he removed the surplus stone to within an inch or so of the intended last surface, using first the pick-hammer and the drill and then increasingly the dial. There followed the crude shaping of the figure with the point, a fine dial which tin exist recognized past the pitting it leaves, and awkward cavities (such as the space betwixt an arm and the body or deep folds of drapery) were partly hollowed out by the drill. The drill, which had a circular chisel for its chip, was used in ii ways, either to bore single holes or serial of holes, or (as a 'running' drill) travelling obliquely forward to cut a furrow. The method of the running drill seems to take been invented little, if at all, earlier than the 370s BCE and, since it saved labour, shortly became very popular.

The next and virtually decisive stage of the carving was the detailed modelling of the surface past chisels of various types - the hook chisel (which seems to take been invented around 560 BCE), the apartment chisel and the round chisel. These chisels were used both obliquely and vertically, equally was the point, and commonly with short, gentle strokes.

After the modelling the surface was smoothed with rasps of suitable shapes and estimate, and and then came a finer smoothing with abrasives, probably emery chips and powder followed by powdered pumice. This smoothing did not produce the high gloss of much Roman and recent sculpture. For a gloss terminate, the surface needs to be polished with finer abrasives, such as putty pulverisation or rouge. Finally the statue was painted - from 500 BCE onwards, in the encaustic technique - and whatsoever metal accessories were fastened.

For reliefs the procedure was much the aforementioned. Kickoff the discipline must have been sketched on the prepared block. Then the outline was cutting out, on deeper reliefs often past a drill, and after that the point, chisel, rasp and abrasives were used in sequence. More often than not Greek sculptors of reliefs carved no part much further dorsum from the front airplane than was required past the effective modelling of that part. So the background tends not to be level and the depth at which figures and parts of figures are set is governed more by optical than natural relationships.

For pedimental figures practice varied. Sometimes the procedure was that used for free-standing statues, though often the back was unfinished, merely sometimes - as with the bodies of the Centaurs at 0lympia - they were treated much similar high relief. The standard of end was very loftier and all visible tool marks of ane stage were expected to exist cleared away in the next, though in that location were awkward places where abrasives or the rasp could not be used properly and very occasionally a tool dug too deep on an open up surface. Taste in finishing varied, merely was less exacting every bit time went on. On reliefs, backgrounds and large neutral areas like seats were often rasped, just non smoothed further by abrasives. In the quaternary century, some sculptors chose to leave curtain only rasped, for contrast of texture with the fully smoothed flesh; and in lesser pieces there was an increasing tendency to negligence. Even so, the deviation between fifty-fifty mediocre Greek carving and the average Roman copy is obvious; the copyists but occasionally took trouble over the chisel piece of work. Incidentally, a Greek sculptor typically took from six to nine months to carve a full-size marble statue.

Bronze statues are rare, so information technology is much more than difficult to deduce the methods by which they were made, compared with marble statues. Thus the summary business relationship that follows may be wrong in parts. During the seventh and the early sixth centuries some sizable statues were synthetic in the 'sphyrelaton' technique - that is, thin sheets of bronze hammered into shape and fastened with nails to a wooden frame or core - just the results were not satisfactory; and though small-scale figurines were cast solid in molds, solid casting was too expensive (even if practicable) for big figures. Then, probably about the middle of the sixth century, a process of hollow casting, which had been used for some time for smallish objects, was borrowed and developed for full-size statues. The Greeks were not advanced plenty in their metallurgy to construct large frames every bit rigid equally is needed for sand-box casting and then they must have depended on a 'lost wax' process.

The regular sequence of piece of work seems to have been something like this. First the sculptor prepared his preliminary effigy in full and precise detail; the material is likely to take been wax, or perhaps clay or wood, but anyhow the effect suggests carving rather than modelling of the surface. Then this effigy was coated with clay (or mayhap plaster) to make a mold. Adjacent the mold and the preliminary figure had to be separated, and here more than doubt intrudes. The post-obit phase required the mold to take been slit open, and also it was usual to cast large statues in several parts. If then the material of the preliminary effigy was soft - that is wax or clay - it could be prised or dug away or perhaps run or washed out; or else the figure was removed intact and, since under-cut was frequent, especially in folds of drapery, this means either that the figure had already been dissected into many separable pieces or that an as complex dissection was now performed on the mold; although if the mold was so dissected, most of the smaller pieces must have been reassembled before the side by side phase. In this, the open mold was lined with wax to whatever thickness was wanted for the statuary wall of the finished statue. In turn the wax lining was lined with clay to form a cadre, which was connected to the mold by metallic pegs (chaplets), and then that mold and core would proceed their relative positions when the wax was melted out. This clay core may have been slapped on moist, or poured in liquid, and depending on the process used the mold was reassembled in its complete parts subsequently or before the making of the core. If the mold was of plaster an actress operation was necessary, since the plaster had to be removed advisedly from the wax-covered core and replaced past a thick blanket of clay. (Note: The procedure described so far is that of indirect 'lost wax' casting, but Greek sculptors sometimes used the less economical straight procedure instead: here the preliminary figure, which is of clay and also serves as a core, is itself coated with a layer of wax and this layer, which is finished in total particular, is enclosed in a casing of clay.)

All was now ready for the firing. The molds with their cores were warmed so that the wax melted out and molten bronze was see the cavities left past the wax; only since air-dried dirt volition not have molten metallic without at least buckling, i assumes that after the wax had melted the molds and cores were fired to the temperature required for terracotta or fifty-fifty higher, and the metal was run in while they were still at this heat. And so, when everything had cooled, the bronze casting was freed by breaking off the outer mold or coating. It was not, of grade, necessary to pick out all the core and in fact lumps of cadre accept been found still surviving inside bronze statues.

There was still plenty of work to be done. At this stage the casting has a granular peel, which needed scraping off; cracks were plugged and faults made good past cutting out and filling with strips of metal plate (the rectangular depressions visible on some surviving statues are such cuttings from which the fillings accept fallen out). The separately molded pieces were joined together, by tongue and groove if big, or by welding or soldering if small. Details were engraved, optics were inserted and fixed, often lips and nipples were inlaid in copper or some other metal, and the whole surface was burnished thoroughly to conceal the edges of joins and patchings and to produce a proper shine. The shine was maintained, every bit records show, past applications of oil or resin, and perhaps bitumen. Altogether the making of a bronze statue was a complicated task and the risks of failure in firing the mold and founding the metal must take been serious, it was the greater price of the materials that made statuary statues dearer than statues of marble.

Some statues, specially smallish ones, were put on high pedestals or even columns or piers, merely the most normal type of Greek base of operations was relatively low, rectangular and made from marble. In the fifth century, for a total-size statue the base of operations was commonly rather less than a foot high and its surface might be finished but with the bespeak, though subsequently in that location was a trend to produce something taller and more ornate. Standing marble statues were carved with a modest plinth round the anxiety and this was let into the base and fixed with lead, oft untidily. Bronze statues were pegged. See likewise: Greek Metalwork.

The setting was unremarkably in the open air and, since by the fifth century Greek sculptors were sophisticated enough to brand optical corrections for the bending of viewing, one assumes they as well took account of the nature of the lighting. These very important factors are often ignored in the exhibiting of Greek sculpture in both onetime and new museums, where statues are generally set likewise high to a higher place the footing and their illumination tends to be one-sided and oblique. Nor is the arrangement altogether correct, in long rows or studied groupings; the Greek habit was to consider each statue as an contained entity and to site information technology in some conveniently vacant place without much business organisation for its aesthetic relationship to neighbouring statues or buildings.

There is one more than warning. Most ancient statues have been mutilated in the passage of time. From the sixteenth to the nineteenth century it was usual to restore at to the lowest degree the more obvious deficiencies and though the current fashion abhors any restoration, many pieces are even so exhibited which have been restored, sometimes misleadingly. There is a fairly reliable dominion for distinguishing what is original in a marble statue and what is non. When ii pieces of stone are joined, it is very hard to disguise the line of the join. Now a natural intermission leaves an irregular border and, if a line of joining is irregular, the 2 pieces can exist taken every bit belonging to each other. Just since one needs a regular surface to fit a new slice onto another, a direct joining line shows that 1 of these pieces is new and one may suspect that the jagged surface of an old pause has been cut down and smoothed to make a clean fit for a replacement. Occasionally such replacements were made in ancient times, but generally a straight bring together is evidence of modernistic restoration in modern times. The National Museum at Naples, which inherited the magnificent Renaissance collection of the Farnese family, is an beauteous place for practising this test of authenticity.

NOTE: For afterward sculptors inspired by the sculptural carvings of ancient Greece, please run into: Classicism in Fine art (800 onwards).

Uses For Aboriginal Greek Sculpture

The Greeks used statues for then-called cult figures of deities, dedications, monuments on graves and architectural decoration, merely it was not until the Hellenistic catamenia that they acquired or deputed more than statuettes for private enjoyment. The uses of reliefs were similar, except that they did non serve equally cult figures.

Cult statues, sometimes jumbo, were comparatively rare. Normally ane such statue, of the patron god or goddess, stood within the inner area of a temple, but the term 'cult statue' is misleading. These sculptures were regarded as works of man craftsmanship, illustrating but non embodying the deity. Thus, although admired, they were not worshipped.

Dedications were ready in sanctuaries and other public places, by individual persons or by communities, to celebrate victory in athletic competitions or war, to pay a vow or a fine, to limited gratitude for success or safety, and to annunciate a donor. Others, from the quaternary century onwards, included statues commemorating distinguished citizens. Some popular sites became crowded with these dedicatory statues, as is very evident from the surviving bases in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. Reliefs were ordinarily less imposing and cheaper; they vary widely in size and quality and were especially popular as votive offerings, like the painted wooden or terracotta plaques offered past the poor. Much the almost numerous class of statues were dedications.

Grave monuments were another of import class of sculpture. Most of them were in relief. But those who could afford it sometimes preferred a statue, especially in the Archaic menstruation. Though the Greeks respected the graves of their dead, the memorials higher up them satisfied family feeling and ostentation rather than religious necessities; and so in a public emergency grave sculptures could be demolished to provide rock for fortifications, and at Athens on two occasions funerary expenditure was restricted successfully by civil legislation. Again in the siting and choice of monuments not much observe was taken of those on neighbouring plots. The main cemeteries ran along the roads out-side the city gates, with the dead competing (sometimes explicitly) for the notice of every passer-by.

In Greek architecture, particularly for temples, sculpture in the round could be used for acroteria and antefixes, and spouts often took the shape of panthera leo heads. Farther, the figures of pedimental sculpture soon came to stand up clear of their groundwork, though in limerick and poses they were nevertheless close to reliefs. Other uses for architectural sculpture are found among foreign peoples who admired and followed Greek art; in particular, statues were sometimes put by Etruscans forth the ridge of a temple roof and by Lycians in the intervals of the raised colonnade embellishing an aristocratic tomb.

Most of these uses of sculpture were connected with sanctuaries and graves, but even if religion permeated Greek life, Greek art was in no pregnant sense religious. Representations of gods and goddesses, who were conceived as only too fully human, gave them their advisable maturity and attributes - so Zeus was regularly bearded and Athena commonly wore helmet and aegis. But Greek artists, unlike Egyptian, were non cramped by hieratic regulations concerning how gods and people should be depicted. The standard by which an artist'due south piece of work was judged was its aesthetic value inside, of grade, the limits allowed past public opinion. This limitation applied particularly to sculpture - and to statues more than than reliefs - since sculpture of whatsoever consequence was set up up simply in public places. That presumably is why the first statue of a nude female did not occur till the middle of the fourth century, though in vase painting and for figurines (and indeed in relief sculpture) nudes had been accepted long before. But painted vases and figurines were fabricated for private customers and, fifty-fifty if dedicated in a sanctuary, they were not exhibited conspicuously. Sculptors only became free of such restraint in the Hellenistic period, when public stance had changed and they were at concluding enabled to exploit without disguise their own or their customers' tastes for the un-heroic, the erotic and the sentimental.

It is much the same with sculptural types and subjects. Throughout the Archaic menses the two principal types were the 'kouros' (continuing nude male person) and the 'kore' (continuing draped female person), and these could serve as cult statues, or dedications, or grave monuments. So too to a lesser degree did the Classical successors of the kouros and kore. Some gods and heroes had a feature attribute to identify them - Asklepios a snake, or Heracles his club - but more often than not till the Hellenistic flow the subjects of statues were unspecialized types, and convenient vehicles for artistic expression. For instance the kouros is a regular type of statue on Archaic graves, but there is no good reason to retrieve that these expensive sepulchral monuments were put upwards merely for very young men who had not lived long enough to grow a beard. Once more, in the later sixth century the standard dedication on the Acropolis at Athens was a kore, just because of its dress this effigy did not represent Athena, to whom it was dedicated, nor because of its gender the donor. Information technology is interesting that 'agalma', one of the 2 mutual Greek words for a statue, had an original meaning of 'a thing to accept pleasure in'.

Reliefs, of form, where several figures are included, require some coherent subject to avoid dullness, but in the tablets and friezes of temples, the subject field, commonly mythological, was non often one peculiarly advisable to the patron deity. The battle of the Lapiths and the Centaurs, which occupies the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and the southward set of metope tablets of the Parthenon at Athens, took place far away in Thessaly and was a pocket-size incident in Greek myth; but information technology gave artists a user-friendly excuse for practising their skill in human anatomy, both male and female, and varying the effect with horses. Grave reliefs adult their own conventions of domestic scenes of pleasure or grief and votive reliefs often depicted the appropriate divinities with worshippers budgeted them, but the figures of the dead or the donors remained standard types. Fifty-fifty in portraits, or what pass as portraits, it was not until the Hellenistic flow that sculptors tried seriously for a speaking likeness of their sitter. It is hard to avert the decision that in the choice and even more in the handling of types and subjects the ascendant motives were aesthetic, and so one may with adept conscience enjoy Greek sculpture every bit art without worrying nearly any esoteric pregnant.

Origins of Greek Sculpture

During the eighth century BCE, at to the lowest degree in Crete, some unproblematic reliefs of soft limestone evidence an Oriental and particularly Syrian manner, merely this was a faux starting time and is ignored here. Greek sculpture as we know it began with the so-chosen Daedalic manner, which appeared towards the middle of the seventh century.

The problem of origins is best divide into two - how did the Greeks get the idea of large statues of stone and how did they get the style? To the commencement question in that location is a ready reply: at that time Greeks were certainly visiting Syria, which had some stone sculpture, and possibly Egypt, which had more. On the source of the style there are various theories.

The i most widely held is that early Greek sculpture was based on Egyptian sculpture- because of the pose (especially of the male figure), the wig-like crew, and mayhap the technique of carving hard stone. Yet the Greek male pose differs from the Egyptian in tilt and stance, while the crew was familiar in Syrian art likewise, Moreover, Greek masons may already have been used to marble, and Egyptian forms are full and rounded and to some degree individualized, while Daedalic figures have a spare and unnaturally simplified structure.

Another notion, that the Daedalic style of stone sculpture continued an before Greek style of etching in wood, has few supporters, since the Greek figurines of the early seventh and late 8th centuries are radically different from Daedalic in way and then also are the very rare stone carvings that may be of the same date.

If these objections are good, then the way of Greek sculpture cannot have been derived from that of any sculptural school. And in origin, it may be but an enlargement of the way of the gimmicky Daedalic figurines of clay, which appeared all of a sudden at the beginning of the seventh century, whose fashion and technique appears to have derived from a form of cheap Syrian plaques and figurines. Yet, not anybody can stomach so apprehensive an beginnings for so high an fine art.

If, though, Egyptian art had no direct part in the creation of Greek sculpture, it may withal have had some influence later. The kouros in New York, which was sculpted near 600 BCE, conforms in some points to the standard grid used by the Egyptians for plotting out a statue and this may not be coincidence. Nonetheless, the sculptor of the New York kouros was an eccentric, and more orthodox kouroi of the time show no such conformity. By 600 BCE, sculpture - like other fine arts of European Hellenic republic - was well established, and what borrowings it made from outside were but casual.

Information technology may have been unlike in the East Greek region, along the westward declension of Turkey, where a new and distinct mode appears at the outset of the sixth century, peradventure inspired by ivory statuettes from the Syrian region. But as more early sculpture is discovered, the bug or origins and influences will no doubtfulness become more complicated.

• For more than about the evolution and chronology of the visual arts, encounter: History of Art.
• For more about reliefs, friezes and statues in Aboriginal Greece, run across: Visual Arts Encyclopedia.

---

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Art and CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES
© visual-arts-cork.com. All rights reserved.

russoutemainner.blogspot.com

Source: http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/antiquity/greek-sculpture.htm